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BibliographyForestry, reserves management and conservationAlbers, Heidi J., Scott Rozelle and Li Guo. 1998. " China 's Forests Under Economic Reform: Timber Supplies, Environmental Protection, and Rural Resource Access." Contemporary Economic Policy 16(1): 22-33. Abstract China 's national forest statistics describe increases in total forest cover during the 1980s but mask the diversity of responses to economic reform and some characteristics of the forests and forest uses. The provincial-level statistics reported here confirm the regional studies and anecdotal reports about widespread fellings of forest in the non-state managed areas but demonstrate that high rates of harvest occurred in the state-managed forests, too. These disaggregated statistics reveal the importance of direct investment projects, as opposed to pure reform measures, to provide environmental services and to increase in the use of forest land for case forests and fuelwood forests, as opposed to timber forests, by rural forest managers trying to meet their local resource and income needs. An, Li, Frank Lupi, Jianguo Liu, Marc A. Linderman and Jinyan Huang. 2002. "Modeling the Choice to Switch From Fuelwood to Electricity: Implications for Giant Panda Habitat Conservation." Ecological Economics 42(3): 445-457. Abstract Despite its status as a nature reserve, Wolong Nature Reserve ( China ) has experienced continued loss of giant panda habitat due to human activities such as fuelwood collection. Electricity, though available throughout Wolong, has not replaced fuelwood as an energy source. We used stated preference data obtained from in-person interviews to estimate a random utility model of the choice of adopting electricity for cooking and heating. Willingness to switch to electricity was explained by demographic and electricity factors (price, voltage, and outage frequency). In addition to price, non-price factors such as voltage and outage frequency significantly affect the demand. Thus, lowering electricity prices and increasing electricity quality would encourage local residents to switch from fuelwood to electricity and should be considered in the mix of policies to promote conservation of panda habitat.
Bennett, B. 1990. "Background to the Forestry Situation in Southern China ." Canberra , Australian National University , National Centre for Development Studies, China Working Paper no. 88/1 . Bruce, J.W. et al. 1995. "Experimenting with Approaches to Common Property Forestry in China." UNASYLVA 46(1): 44-49. http://www.fao.org/docrep/v3960e/experimenting%20with%20approaches%20to%2 Cao, Guangxia. 1998. "Indications from Community Forestry Cases in Yunnan , China ." In Community Forestry at a Crossroads: Reflections and Future Directions in the Development of Community Forestry, Proceedings of an International Seminar . RECOFTC Report No. 16. Victor, M., C. Lang and Jeff Bornemeier, eds. Bankok: The Regional Community Forestry Training Center for Asia and the Pacific. Abstract Five community forestry cases in different geographical areas of Yunnan province, China , are reviewed in this paper: two from tropical areas, one a subtropical area, and two from hot, dry valleys in subtropical areas. The local management of trees and forest is described in each case. Generally, Chinese villagers rely heavily on forest resources (such as timber, firewood, wild fruits, vegetables and mushrooms) for their livelihoods. In many cases local forest management systems, which function with the cooperation of the local forestry department, ensure the sustained used of forest resources. As the villagers' livelihoods change from subsistence economy to market economy, with increased cash income, the role of forests and trees has become both more complicated and more important. While forests continue to provide basic goods and services for local communities, many local communities, supported by government policy, are increasingly looking at the short term economic benefits of exploited forest resources. Cao, Guangxia. 2001. "Implication for Indigenous Knowledge: A Methodology based on Silvicultural Management by Local Farmers in Sichuan , China ." In Cultivating Forests: Alternative Forest Management Practices and Techniques for Community Forestry, Proceedings of an Interantional Seminar. RECOFTC Report No. 17. Victor, M. and Andrew Barash, eds. Bangkok : The Regional Community Forestry Training Center for Asia and the Pacific. Abstract Forest management practices in China are evolving as quickly as economic liberalization policies. Farmers in rural China are gaining more control over how they management their forest resources. Unfortunately, forestry professionals implementing policy at the local level have not proved as flexible. While techniques such as Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) have been practiced widely to interpret indigenous management regimes, these findings are usually incorporated into predetermined management plans. This paper looks at local silvicultural practices in Sichuan Province , China and investigates why and in what context farmers manage their trres. This paper argues that forestry professionals need to better understand why and how farmers manage trees and then use this understanding as a basis for planning forest management activities. Only when this is accomplished will management practices allow for farmers' innovation which is often talked about in participatory forest planning and management. Centre for Biodiversity and Indigenous Knowledge (CBIK). 2002. Yunnan Environmental Development Program (YEDP): Policy Review and Institutional Capacity Analysis on Environmental Protection and Poverty Alleviation (Main Report). Kunming , Yunnan ; CBIK. Chen, Fu. 2000. "Status and Future Trends in Plantation Silviculture in China ." Ambio 29(6): 354-361. de Boer, G. 1996. "Decision making structure for China 's Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve in Yunnan Province ." China 's Biosphere Reserves (Special Issue)+: 59-64. Fang, Jingyun, Anping Chen, Changhui Peng, Shuqing Zhao, Longjun Ci. 2001. "Changes in Forest Biomass Carbon Storage in China Between 1949 and 1998. Science 292: 2320-2322. Fang, Jingyun, G. Geoff Wang, Guo-Hua Liu and Song-Ling Xu. 1998. " Forest Biomass in China : An Estimate Based on Biomass-Volume Relationship." Ecological Applications 8(4): 1084-1091. Abstract In this study, a method was developed to estimate the forest biomass of China based on the relationship between stand biomass and volume. Biomass-volume relationships were quantified for all the main forest types in China using 758 sets of data obtained from direct field measurements. These relationships were used to convert volume measurements into total biomass values (above- and belowground dry masses) based on 1984-1988 forest inventory data for China . The latter had been compiled from more than 250,000 permanent and temporary field plots across the country. This data contained information on forest area and timber volume for each age class and site class for all forest types at the provincial level. As a result, the total forest biomass of China was estimated as 9103 Tg (1 Tg = 10 12 g), with 8592, 326, and 185 Tg from forests, special product plantations, and bamboo forests, respectively. The area-weighted mean biomass density was 84 Mg/ha (1Mg = 10 6 g). For comparison, two additional estimates, one based on the mean biomass density method and another based on the mean ratio of biomass to stem volume, were also derived. Compared to the biomass-volume relationship method, the mean biomass density method considerably overestimated the forest biomass of China (by 59.6%), while the mean ratio of biomass to stem volume method slightly underestimated it (by 12.1%). Despite the small forest biomass value due to a low forest cover, the area-weighted mean biomass density was comparable to those of other regions in the middle and high latitudes except in the United States . We believe that our study provided not only an appropriate estimate of forest biomass for China , but also an improved methodology for estimating forest biomass at the regional, national, and global level. Glacy, Lawrence. 2002. " China 's Nature Reserves: Protecting Species or Generating Profits?" China Environmental Series 5: 69-73. Guo, Huijun and C. Padoch. 1995. "Patterns And Management Of Agroforestry Systems In Yunnan : An Approach To Upland Rural Development." Global Environmental Change 5(4): 273-279. Abstract: Characterized by great cultural and environmental diversity, China 's South-Western Yunnan Province supports and exceptionally rich and dynamic agrodiversity. Since 1990 the Traditional Land Management Systems (TLM) Research Programme has researched change, variation, and adaptability of Yunnan 's little studied agroforestry systems in four different areas. Research efforts focus on the interplay between these agroforestry systems, shifting land and resource rights, rural government policies, indigenous management, demographic change, and market conditions. The authors review agrodiversity in Yunnan by briefly highlighting specific forms of agrodiversity and by examining in-depth the transition of Zhouxi Village farmers, a TLM research area, from swidden agriculture to a predominantly agroforesty based economy. Harkness, James. 1998. "Recent Trends in Forestry and Conservation of Biodiversity in China ." The China Quarterly 156: 911-934. Hou, Hwioh-yu. 1991. "Some Strategic Problems Concerning Forestry Development in China ." International Journal of Social Economics 18(8): 157-166. Abstract: Examines strategic problems in forestry development in China . Forest resources in the country; Preservation of the nation's forest regions; Anomalies in wage policies which allow ordinary forest workers to be paid less that forest engineering workers. Jiang, Mingkang and Dayuna Xue. 1996. "Nature reserve construction and its contribution to the biodiversity conservation in China mainland." Journal of Environmental Sciences 8(1) 15-20. Abstract By the end of 1993, 763 nature reserves were established in China with a total area of 66184.1 kha, occupied proximally 6.84% of the whole country's land area. The reserves concerning biodiversity conservation include ecosystem categories of forest, grassland, desert, terrestrial wetland and waters, ocean and coast and categories of wild animal and wild plant. Based on the construction of the reserves, the contributions of the reserves of various categories to the biodiversity conservation and the existed shortages for the reserve construction in China were analyzed thoroughly in this paper. Jin, Jianming. 1997. "The construction and management of nature reserves in China ." Journal of Environmental Sciences 9(2): 129- 140. Abstract This article briefly outlines the construction and development of natural reserves; it embraces the necessity and main content of the management of natural reserves, including theoretical guidance, targets management, planning management, legislative management, technological management, administrative management. It discusses the experience of construction and management of natural reserves and existing problems in this regard as well as correspondent solutions such as policy measures, technological measures and management measures. Kun, Zhang. 2000. "Issues Relating to Forest Management in China ." In Decentralization and Devolution of Forest Management in Asia and the Pacific, Report of an International Seminar. RECOFTC Report No. 18. Enter, T., M. Victor and Patrick Durst, eds. Bangkok : The Regional Community Forestry Training Center for Asia and the Pacific. Lai Qingkui. 1999. Cases On the Integrated Mountain Development of Yunnan . Department of Forestry, SWFU, P.R. China. http://www.mtnforum.org/resources/library/laiq99a.htm . Lang, Graeme. 2002. "Forests, Floods, and the Environmental State in China ." Organization & Environment 15(2): 109-130. Abstract Deforestation continues in developing countries, despite predictions of ruinous consequences in the 21 st century. The state is a poor protector of the environment in most of these countries but is the only agency able to deal with many of the causes of deforestation. This article focuses on the most striking example of state action against deforestation among the developing countries in the world during the past two decades-the ban on logging by the central government of China following the massive floods in 1998. River floods are more devastating in China than anywhere else in the world. This case provides a good opportunity to study state responses to environmental crisis. It illuminates the conditions under which central governments can act forcefully to conserve natural resources in the fact of the determination of regional and local actors and authorities to exploit their resources intensively in the drive for economic development. Li, Wenhua. 1993. Forests of the Himalayan-Hengduan Mountains of China and Strategies for their Sustainable Development. Kathmandu : International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. Liu, Dachang. 2001. "Tenure And Management Of Non-State Forests In China Since 1950: A Historical Review." Environmental History 6(2): 239-263. Ogilvie, James. 1996. "Forestry in Diqin Prefecture , Northwest Yunnan Province , China ." Commonwealth Forestry Review 75(4): 290-295. Osborne, Milton . 2000. "The Strategic Significance of the Mekong ." Rozelle, Scott, Jikun Huang, Syed Arif Husain, Aaron Zazueta. 2000. China : From Afforestation to Poverty Alleviation. Washington D.C. : World Bank Evaluation Country Case Study Series. Studley, John. 1999a. Forests and Environmental Degradation in China . http://www.geocities.com/john_f_studley/Chendeg1.htm Studley, John. 1999b. Progress, Biodiversity Loss and Environmental Degradation in SW China . http://www.geocities.com/john_f_studley/China_re.htm "Stunned by Floods, China Hastens Logging Curbs". 1998. The New York Times. Sept. 28. Sun, Changjin. 1992. "Community Forestry in Southern China : From People-for-the-Trees to Trees-for-the-People." Journal of Forestry June: 35-40. Swope, Linsey, Margaret Byrne Swain, Fuquan Yang and Jack D. Ives. 1997. "Uncommon Property Rights in Southwest China : Trees and Tourism," in Life and Death Matters: Human Rights and the Environment at the End of the Millenium , Barbara Rose (ed.). Altamira Press. Taylor, A. H. and Zisheng Qin. 1989. "Structure And Composition Of Selectively Cut And Uncut Abies-Tsuga Forest In Wolong Natural Reserve And Implications For Panda Conservation In China ." Biological Conservation 47(2): 83-108. Taylor, A. H. and Zisheng Qin. 1988. "Regeneration Patterns In Old-Growth Abies-Betula Forests In The Wolong Natural Reserve , Sichuan , China ." Journal of Ecology 76(4): 1204-1218. Taylor, A. H. , Zisheng Qin and Liu Jie. 1996. "Structure And Dynamics Of Subalpine Forests In The Wang Lang Natural Reserve , Sichuan , China ." Vegetatio 124(1): 25-38. Tisdell, Clement A. and Zhu Xiang. 1997. "Financing Nature Reserves in China : a Case Study." Tiger Paper 24(4): 21-26. Abstract: The authors discuss funding of nature reserves in China using Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve in Yunnan Province as a case study. Most funding for the reserve comes from the central government, but operations such as a "butterfly factory", resource management fees, and tourism generate additional funds. U.S. Embassy, Beijing . 2001. Yunnan Parks Having Trouble Balancing Priorities. U.S. Embassy, Beijing . July. U.S. Embassy, Beijing . 2000a. Trees Vs. People? - PRC Natural Forest Protection. August. http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/english/sandt/yunnan-forest-one.htm Wang, Y. C. 1983. "Natural Protection And Ecological Equilibrium: On The Forest Ecosystem Of Xishuangbanna And Yunnan Plateau." Journal of Ecology ( Beijing ) 3 (In Chinese, summary in English). Winkler, Daniel. 1999. Tibetan Plateau Forest Eco-Systems: Geo-Ecology, Major Threats and Recent Developments. http://www.mtnforum.org/resources/library/winkd99a.htm Wu, Z. and L. Liu. 1996. "Changes in land use in the Tiaobahe District, Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve." China 's Biosphere Reserves (Special Issue): 36-42. Xu Jianchu and Adreas Wilkes. 2002. "People and Ecosystems in Mountain Landscape of Northwest Yunnan , Southwest China : Causes of Biodiversity Loss and Ecosystem Degradation." Mimeo. Kunming Institute of Botony, The Chinese Academy of Sciences. Yeh, Emily T. 2000. " Forest Claims, Conflicts and Commodification: The Political Ecology of Tibetan Mushroom-Harvesting Villages in Yunnan Province , China ." The China Quarterly 161: 264-278. Yin, Runsheng. 1998. "Forestry and the Environment in China : the Current Situation and Strategic Choices." World Development 26(12): 2153-2167. Abstract: Although China has recently expanded its forest area and inventory, it is still facing a severe resource crisis, featuring high demands for wood products and environmental services, a rapid depletion of natural forests, and poor quality of man-made forests. After analyzing the current situation, a new development strategy is presented for China 's forestry in this paper. According to this efficiency-based forestry division strategy, three interrelated types of forestry will emerge through more efficient management in the next 30 years: a strong commercial forestry sector including intensive forest plantations and an integrated processing industry, a well-established environmental forestry sector, and an extensive multiple-use forestry sector. Various policy changes for this new strategy are discussed. Young, Stephen, Chris Carpenter and Wang Zhi-Jun. 1992. "A Study of the Structure and Composition of an Old Growth and Secondary Broad-Leaved Forest in the Ailao Mountains of Yunnan , China ." Mountain Research and Development 12(3): 269-284. Young, S. S. and Zhi-jun Wang. 1989. "Comparison Of Secondary And Primary Forests In The Ailao Shan Region Of Yunnan , China ." Forest Ecology and Management 28(3-4): 281-300. Zhang, Peichang, Guofan Shao, Guang Zhao, Dennis C. Le Master, George R. Parker, John B. Dunning Jr. and Qinglin Li. 2000. " China 's Forest Policy for the 21 st Century." Science 288(5474): 2135-2136. Abstract A half-century policy of forest exploitation and monoculture in China has led to disastrous consequences, including degradation of forests and landscapes. A new forest policy has been adopted in China called the Natural Forest Conservation Program. Zhao, Guang and Guofan Shao. 2002. "Logging Restrictions in China : A Turning Point for Forest Sustainability." Journal of Forestry June: 34-37. Zhau, Shi-Don and Zhau Guang. 1991. "Management of Changbai Mountain Biosphere Reserve: The Present Conditions, Problems, and Perspectives." Mountain Research and Development 11(2): 168-169.
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